The Neurocognitive Mechanisms Underlying Anxious and Avoidant Attachment Styles
- Renaldo Pool, BHSc
- 5 days ago
- 17 min read
Updated: 1 day ago
How Early Experiences, Brain Structure, and Environmental Factors Shape Attachment Patterns
Introduction
The impact of caregiving during infancy, genetic predispositions, and other environmental factors has a profound effect on how we perceive relationships, engage in social interactions, manage stress, regulate emotions, and form our self-image throughout our lives. It not only governs our approach to creating emotional connections with others but also influences cognitive structure, neural connections, and the formation and retention of memories.
Understanding the concept of attachment style is an intricate process that relies on memory recall of past experiences and self-perception, which can result in biased perspectives, as described in various studies (Sheinbaum et al., 2025; Erkoreka et al., 2021b). This raises the question of whether individuals are cognizant of their attachment styles and their associated characteristics. Therefore, this article aims to increase awareness of the Attachment Theory by addressing factors that contribute to insecure attachment styles and their impact on neurocognition. Potential therapeutic interventions are also discussed, aimed at addressing the mechanisms and patterns formed in response to various social cues and emotional triggers.
With current research building on previous psychological and neuroscience-based studies, and integrating technological advances and therapeutic alternatives, it has the potential to provide significant insight, aiding individuals in developing secure internal working models.
Highlights
Early childhood experiences influence the development of secure or insecure attachment styles.
Scientific studies have suggested that insecure attachment styles have measurable effects on cognitive function and structure, influencing emotional regulation, stress responses, and relational and social behaviors.
Both environmental and genetic factors contribute to the variance seen with attachment style development.
Attachment styles are exhibited in adulthood through specific characteristics that can alter relationship dynamics.
Various effective therapeutic interventions are available, focusing on emotional regulation, stress management, and social behavior. Alongside the integration of technological advancements, it provides consistent and accessible alternatives that further enhance the techniques learnt through in-person therapy.
The Attachment Theory Framework
Even though the attachment style theory was postulated in the 1960s, as a way of creating a psychological model that connected early childhood attachment bond distortion with dysregulated attachment behavior later in life, it also addressed anxiety and depression based on factors negatively impacting attachment security (Giglioli et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2025). John Bowlby proposed that infants have an innate motivation for closeness to and protection by their primary caregiver; however, when proximity is disrupted through factors such as neglect or inconsistent care, a triphasic response is elicited (Rajkumar, 2022). Initially, the experience includes anxiety and anger, leading to sadness or a depressive state, and if separation continues, detachment ensues. It was suggested that internal working models, i.e., attachment security, that are negatively impacted, increase an individual’s risk of developing depression, and persistent separation increases the chance for an individual to develop anxiety (Rajkumar, 2022).
Through Bowlby’s psychological framework, integrating neurobiology with intrinsic and extrinsic environmental factors, the foundation for attachment theory and a predisposition to the risk of depression and anxiety is formed (Rajkumar, 2022). With this foundation, recent scientific findings can be used to provide a guided framework for early intervention options and tailored therapeutic remediation (Giglioli et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2025).
What Does It Mean to Be Anxiously Attached?
A fear of abandonment highlights the psychological profile of anxiously attached individuals, along with hypersensitive reactions to emotional cues and low self-esteem (Sagone et al., 2023). Thought process patterns include catastrophizing social situations and being hypervigilant regarding emotional changes in others (Vrtička & Vuilleumier, 2012; Sheinbaum et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2021).
These traits are relayed in adult relationships as clinginess, jealousy, and accepting toxic behavior or circumstances to avoid being abandoned. Individuals with this attachment style tend to seek continuous reassurance from their partner as a safeguard against feelings of insecurity and to boost their confidence (Vrtička & Vuilleumier, 2012; Sheinbaum et al., 2015; Lai et al., 2022).
In their daily lives, these individuals experience hyperactivity of their stress response system, i.e., increased cortisol levels, due to their perception of relational threats (Deng et al., 2021). Moreover, constantly assessing day-to-day relational situations and aspiring to be a people pleaser can result in burnout.
What is Avoidant Attachment Style?
Individuals with an avoidant attachment style often exhibit feelings of independence and self-reliance, ignoring the intrinsic need for emotional connections through emotional suppression. These patterns originate from emotionally distant or unavailable primary caregivers during the individual’s childhood (Sagone et al., 2023).
These individuals tend to exhibit signs of withdrawal or emotional distancing and prefer being alone (Sheinbaum et al., 2015; Lai et al., 2022; Sagone et al., 2023). While also employing self-sabotaging techniques, such as ending a relationship or avoiding commitment due to the perceived notion of anticipating rejection (Vrtička & Vuilleumier, 2012; Deng et al., 2021).
Although anxious-avoidant styles are characterized by having a self-perceived high self-esteem, a coping mechanism formed due to an internal fear of rejection, they exhibit a fear of betrayal by other individuals. These patterns subsequently affect an individual’s ability to cultivate meaningful connections and could, in turn, lead to isolation and loneliness (Sheinbaum et al., 2015; Deng et al., 2021).
What Factors Lead to the Development of Attachment Styles in Adulthood?
A Caregiver’s Influence on Childhood
When adults exhibit key features of these two attachment styles, it can be inferred that they stem from their early childhood experiences (Rajkumar, 2022; Sagone et al., 2023). These factors include, but are not limited to, inconsistent caregiving where both care and attention are provided, along with neglect, creating anxious attachment coping mechanisms (Deng et al., 2021; Rajkumar, 2022). At the same time, anxious avoidant individuals have traumatic experiences of caregiving, such as abuse or parental mental illness. These attachment styles are respectively portrayed as individuals prioritizing others’ needs over their own, to reinforce caregiver attention, or suppressing emotions to manage feelings of rejection (Deng et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2022; Rajkumar, 2022).
Moreover, the negative consequences of childhood development are particularly noticeable in delayed cognitive development, altered brain structure, impaired synaptic connections, dysfunctional emotional regulation, and heightened stress response systems (Rajkumar, 2022).
Genetic Changes
Epigenetic changes induced by environmental stimuli, such as prolonged stress, lead to genetic alterations that impact neurodevelopment and cognitive function, particularly emotional control. It is also noted that about 35-45% of attachment styles are influenced by genetically related incidences (Rajkumar, 2022; Khan, 2024b). Moreover, 63% of attachment anxiety and personality traits are attributed to genetic effects, as described by Erkoreka et al. (2021b). In addition, chronic stress experienced by the mother during pregnancy or stress-induced environments directly impact prenatal neurodevelopment and the attachment security of the newborn (Rajkumar, 2022).
Family Relationships, Socioeconomic Status, and Lifestyle Factors
Family dynamics, relationship quality, emotional support, parental mental health, and socioeconomic factors, such as poverty, impact the quality of care received during early childhood (Rajkumar, 2022; Khan, 2024b).
What reinforces attachment styles in adulthood are factors such as withdrawal behavior from a partner in romantic relationships, which produces increased anxiety and leads to continuous conflict situations (Rajkumar, 2022). Additionally, societal or cultural pressure that promotes an independent and self-sufficient lifestyle can encourage anxious-avoidant characteristics, hindering emotional maturation (Khan, 2024b).
Comprehending the Neurocognitive Aspects of Anxious Attachment
Dysregulated amygdala function
The amygdala exhibits hyperfunctioning, becoming overstimulated by emotional or social stimuli. Individuals experience an elevated feeling of fear or processing of fearful situations and become extremely vigilant to circumstances where they feel threatened. In turn, high sensitivity to stress and an overreactive response are accompanied (Deng et al., 2021).
Decreased hippocampal volume
A smaller hippocampus is associated with a reduced response to stressful scenarios, affects contextual memory, and alters relational memory recall due to impaired memory-strengthening or consolidation (Deng et al., 2021). Individuals remember situations differently because of a heightened emotional experience during conflict situations, in conjunction with memory consolidation being affected. This is also associated with conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression (Deng et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2022; Rajkumar, 2022).
Weakened prefrontal cortex (PFC) connectivity
Anxious attachment is characterized by a weak connection between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the amygdala, which limits the top-down emotional regulation process and maintains negative thinking, including rumination and catastrophizing (creating negative scenarios with exaggerated outcomes) (Deng et al., 2021; Badarnee et al., 2025).
Impacted Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) and posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
Previous studies have noted increased activity in the ACC during conflict situations and when individuals are excluded from social interactions. This was linked to emotional arousal and conflict monitoring. Additionally, due to a focus on negative social cues (e.g., rejection) and hyperactivity in the ACC, attention is compromised when focused on specific tasks (Deng et al., 2021). Furthermore, an increase in the gray matter of the ACC was also recorded, which is correlated with an elevation in emotional evaluation (Picerni et al., 2022).
With social interaction and the theory of mind (ToM), an overactive anterior insula and ACC lead to a misinterpretation of social feedback through a misjudgment of others’ intentions (Rajkumar, 2022).
Another section of the brain, the PCC, is also noted to show a stronger connection with the amygdala, indicating increased awareness of threats in the surrounding environment (Deng et al., 2021; Badarnee et al., 2025).
Disruption to the HPA axis
Chronic stress is often associated with anxious attachment, characterized by increased cortisol levels. It causes dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, with hippocampal atrophy and dysregulated negative feedback mechanisms (Rajkumar, 2022). Individuals experience this as an elevated reaction to stressors and struggle to return to baseline once the perceived stressor has dissipated.
Imbalanced neurotransmitters
Low levels of serotonin and dopamine are associated with chronic stress, which is triggered by hypersensitivity to perceived stressful stimuli (Rajkumar, 2022). This further exacerbates dysregulated emotions, anxiety, and depressive episodes. Another neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, is also affected, contributing to feelings of agitation and hyperarousal (Rajkumar, 2022).
Affected vagus nerve function
Anxious attached individuals struggle with self-soothing due to a poor vagal response in terms of stress management. This, in turn, also causes a continuous stress response (Christie & Sandoval, 2024).
Understanding the Neurocognitive Aspects of the Avoidant Attachment Style
Dysfunction of the amygdala
In individuals with avoidant attachment mechanisms, a mixed pattern response is observed, with the left amygdala increasing in size (Rajkumar, 2022). There is less integration with the prefrontal regions of the brain because negative stimuli activate the right amygdala. In contrast, the left parahippocampal region is stimulated by positive stimuli, resulting in irregularities in emotion regulation (Deng et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2022).
Decrease in hippocampal size
Reduced hippocampal volume, specifically bilateral hippocampal atrophy, affects memory consolidation and understanding of stress-induced scenarios (Perlini et al., 2019; Rajkumar, 2022). Due to an indifference toward emotional connection in the relational context, improper memory retention of social interactions also occurs (Deng et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2022).
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC) connection and an increased dorsolateral PFC (dlPFC) activation
Signs of emotional isolation or detachment from emotions characterize an avoidant attachment style. This results from the brain becoming overly reliant on processes that suppress the PFC (Lai et al., 2022). When the dlPFC is overstimulated, with increased activity, emotions become suppressed, highlighting cognitive distancing and emotional numbing (Perlini et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2021). Similarly, in relational situations, the avoidant individual focuses on non-emotional details, for instance, concentrating on a person’s tone rather than the content being expressed.
In addition, the interconnected brain regions, such as the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, precuneus, and the temporal-parietal junction, that form part of the default mode network (the part of the brain most active during rest and internal thinking), are hyperconnected correlating with intimacy-related issues or closeness avoidance (Perlini et al., 2019; Deng et al., 2021).
Moreover, a decrease in gray matter is noted in the orbitofrontal cortex and the superior parietal lobule, which affects the evaluation of social situations and the individual’s attention span (Rajkumar, 2022).
Vagus nerve dysfunction
As a result of the use of coping mechanisms, where the inherent response to stressful situations is becoming emotionally numb and dissociative, it alters the responsiveness of the vagus nerve in cases of severely stressful situations (Christie & Sandoval, 2024).
Temporal pole and inferior frontal gyrus implication
Due to lower activity in these brain structures, empathy, introspection, and the ability to recognize the mental states of others are impaired (Deng et al., 2021; Lai et al., 2022). It leads to the misapprehension of social interactions. In contrast, short-term compensation to enhance the ToM approach contributes to a heightened avoidant attachment mechanism, with long-term avoidance disrupting the understanding of social relationships (Perlini et al., 2019).
Effect on oxytocin and opioid mechanisms
Typically, secure attachment styles facilitate well-being centers in the brain, for instance, the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which is linked to oxytocinergic bonding. In contrast, avoidant mechanisms are associated with reduced opioid receptor availability, which in turn impacts social reward sensitivity (Rajkumar, 2022).
Practical Steps for Mitigating Attachment Styles through Therapeutic Improvement
Anxious Attachment
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT), and Mindfulness Applications
Therapeutic techniques, such as CBT and DBT, assist in changing hypervigilant patterns, including constant catastrophizing thoughts, by considering real-life evidence and encouraging a balanced outlook (Diamond et al., 2022). Implementing mindfulness techniques, which help decrease the amygdala's hyperactive state, can strengthen the connection between the PFC and the amygdala. These strategies contribute to regulating emotions and improving attentional control (Khan, 2024b).
Personal Relationship Skills and Applications
Learning to set boundaries is a crucial step in creating a safe environment where an individual can communicate openly with assertiveness, while also taking their well-being into account (Khan, 2024b). In addition, expressing one’s emotions through journaling contributes to identifying cognitive disruptions through unhealthy coping styles. For instance, disrupting thought processes of self-doubt and strengthening thoughts of self-worth reduces dependency on external validation.
Avoidant Attachment
Emotion-Focused Therapy (EFT) and DBT
Applying EFT helps individuals reconnect with their emotions through role-playing or guided scenarios, thereby altering the cognitive effects of emotional numbness or unlearning suppression mechanisms (Christie & Sandoval, 2024). Providing DBT techniques where an individual is gradually sensitized to a vulnerable state, alongside scheduled follow-up meetings to promote introspective awareness, further addresses unhealthy coping mechanisms learned by avoidant-attachment individuals (Diamond et al., 2022; Khan, 2024b).
Personal Skills and Relationship Building
Using journaling as a therapeutic approach aids emotional reflection in a structured manner, while smaller, interactive support groups provide a space for sharing emotions, exposing vulnerability in a controlled setting, and nurturing trust-building. Furthermore, both attachment styles benefit from incorporating co-regulation practices into their relationships with others. With a combined mindfulness or synchronized breathing application, dyadic stress reaction becomes stable and manageable (Diamond et al., 2022; Khan, 2024b).
Utilizing Technological Solutions for Therapeutic Options in Real-World Applications
Virtual Reality (VR) Assessing Attachment Styles and Therapy
With the use of VR, attachment-associated scenarios can be imitated within a controlled environment that recreates an immersive experience for the individual. The individual also benefits from this type of therapeutic advancement because a therapist can directly monitor and record behavior and emotional response in real-time. With the exposure to emotionally fueled recreations, new behavioral techniques and coping mechanisms can be taught (Giglioli et al., 2017).
AI Models for Conversational and Online Therapeutic Use
As an alternative to in-person therapy, conversational AI models can be utilized for psychological support, as discussed by Michelle Ryan and Cindy Hamilton. These models can provide customized assistance depending on an individual’s attachment style and current emotional state. However, overreliance on these models should be avoided, as they do not replace conventional therapeutic approaches (Wu et al., 2025). Virtual therapeutic assistants can serve as a valuable source of support, offering additional techniques and mindfulness exercises between personal therapy sessions. However, obtaining ethical approval and individualized consent for the use of personal data and the security thereof should be considered before adoption (Babu & Joseph, 2024).
Attachment-Focused Therapy
Various therapeutic methods, including EFT, DBT, EMDR (Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing), and Attachment-Based Family Therapy (ABFT), are presented to individuals with attachment style-related issues through various platforms (Diamond et al., 2022; Rajkumar, 2022). The availability of digital platforms provides a consistent and easily accessible option. In conjunction with digital tools available for progress monitoring, emotional responses, and other metrics, this provides insight into an individual’s cognition (Babu & Joseph, 2024). Therefore, if required, tailored adjustments to therapy approaches can be made in a just manner (Laufer et al., 2024b).
Long-Term Benefits of Therapeutic Approaches
Engaging in therapy techniques for attachment style interventions provides a structured approach that also improves cognition and promotes emotional regulation (Khan, 2024b). For instance, improvements are observed in hippocampal plasticity through practical stress management strategies, which also foster more positive relational experiences. By exercising dyadic stress response management, such as partner or family therapy interventions, a secure environment is created where joint problem-solving and memory tasks improve through emotional alignment (Rajkumar, 2022; Khan, 2024b).
Current Research and Prospective Research Areas
Neuroimaging and Cognitive Effects
Ongoing research highlights the use of neuroimaging techniques for emotional processing, whereby anxious and avoidant individuals show reduced amygdala activity and decreased hippocampal and insular function when engaged in projective tasks, such as the Rorschach test, indicating emotional disengagement (Lai et al., 2022).
Electroencephalogram (EEG) and Neural Activity
Anxious-attached styles have been shown to exhibit larger P200 and P400 amplitudes during EEG testing, as noted by Zuckerman et al. (2023), particularly in response to emotional feedback, which provides insight into the characteristically hypervigilant aspect of this attachment style. Moreover, elevated theta and alpha oscillations have also been documented, which were evaluated in social contexts indicative of increased cortical arousal.
Neurochemistry and Cognitive Structure Evaluation
Anxious attachment mechanisms correlate with a change in the m-opioid receptor and its availability, alongside altered oxytocinergic function, relating to stress resilience and social involvement (Rajkumar, 2022). Similarly, a decreased hippocampal size is observed in this attachment mechanism, which is associated with dysregulated memory consolidation and emotional regulation.
Social Media Impact
During a systematic review conducted, it was described that adolescents and adults who identified with anxious attachment were implicated with social media dependence or overuse. Furthermore, social media usage was also found to impact emotional regulation and self-esteem related to appearance, as well as dependence on social connections for overall acceptance, which can affect the potential for adolescent development (D’Arienzo et al., 2019; Putri et al., 2025).
fMRI-focused studies
Anxious-avoidant styles have been associated with decreased activity in the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and VTA brain structures, which reduces the effectiveness of positive feedback mechanisms. In turn, it alters the individual’s sensitivity to the standard reward system feedback loop (Badarnee et al., 2025).
Future Focus Areas
Although ongoing research highlights the profound impact of attachment styles, focusing on the various areas of cognitive functioning and structures affected, future interdisciplinary investigations will be beneficial. Integrating machine learning, genetic, and neuroscientific data, along with monitoring therapeutic effectiveness, will be particularly valuable. These methods could provide insight into creating tailored interventions that address anxiety, depressive states, and attachment mechanisms, while focusing on the emotional well-being and interrelationship of individuals.
Longitudinal research focusing on prenatal stress and attachment-related neural plasticity with the utilization of AI-integrated pattern detection of EEG results.
Elucidate on alternative psychological methods for the assessment of attachment styles that address the shortcomings of current questionnaires or interviews, which have limitations relating to participant bias (Sheinbaum et al., 2015).
Neural patterns of attachment styles can be compared across different cultures, societal norms, and varying levels of social media exposure.
Develop attachment-informed neuromodulation using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) targeting different parts of the brain to address avoidant behavior regarding risks and threats. In turn, this method could provide insight into future interventions to mitigate prolonged anxiety and hypervigilance (Badarnee et al., 2025)
Implementing validation of possible biomarkers, for instance, inflammatory markers, for personalized therapeutic approaches in cases with comorbid anxiety-depression.
Highlighting the long-term effects of AI-assisted therapeutic options, implicating attachment mechanisms seen from adolescence and their predicted outcome in adulthood.
Focusing on various neurotransmitters associated with the different attachment styles can highlight how they connect with severe anxiety and depressive states (Rajkumar, 2022).
Introducing machine learning with EEG- and fMRI-based research for predictive outcomes, with a focus on the different sections of cognition affected by the attachment styles (Laufer et al., 2024b).
Conclusion
The attachment style theory suggests that insecure attachment patterns originate from various factors that occur early in an individual’s life. However, the core takeaway is creating awareness of our different attachment styles. By understanding our social triggers, emotional responses, behavior during distress, and relationship-associated behaviors, along with the reasons behind them, we can implement the necessary changes through the multitude of therapeutic interventions available to us.
Moreover, attachment style is not a psychological concept that focuses solely on an individual’s mental health and well-being, as its implications extend far beyond these areas. Insecure internal working models could contribute to dysregulated cognition, memory, emotional acuity, self-worth, and genetic changes, and predispose one to the development of severe psychiatric disorders, such as social anxiety disorder, depression, and generalized anxiety disorder.
By applying cognitive behavioral and emotion-focused therapies, alongside both conventional and alternative technological approaches, we can effectively engage in a remediation process to ultimately develop secure attachment behaviors. In turn, these steps create a healthy sense of self, mental well-being, and fulfilling relationships.
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About Renaldo Pool, BHSc
As a Medical Laboratory Scientist with sieven years in clinical pathology, I specialize in translating complex science into clear, accessible insights. My diagnostic background fuels my passion for research that enhances healthcare and fosters public understanding. As a member of the International Association of Writers and Editors and the Society for Health Communication, I’m committed to bridging the gap between research and real-world impact with clarity and integrity.
